Numerous tests are available for the identification, diagnosis, and staging of various cancer types. These tests fall under several general categories, including genetic/molecular tests, imaging tests, diagnostic tests, laboratory tests, biopsy procedures, and screening tests.

 1. Screening Tests (Early Detection)

These are used to identify cancer early in asymptomatic individuals:

• Mammogram – Breast cancer
• Pap smear & HPV test – Cervical cancer
• Colonoscopy, Sigmoidoscopy, Fecal tests – Colorectal cancer
• Low-dose CT scan – Lung cancer (for high-risk smokers)
• PSA test (Prostate-Specific Antigen) – Prostate cancer
• CA-125 blood test + Transvaginal Ultrasound – Ovarian cancer (for high-risk individuals)
• Skin checks / Dermoscopy – Skin cancer / Melanoma
• Oral visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) – Oral cancer (in low-resource settings)

2. Blood and Laboratory Tests

These identify aberrant blood parameters or tumor markers:

• Tumor Markers:
• CEA (Carcinoembryonic antigen) – Colon, breast, pancreatic cancers
• CA-125 – Ovarian cancer
• CA 19-9 – Pancreatic cancer
• AFP (Alpha-Fetoprotein) – Liver cancer, germ cell tumors
• PSA – Prostate cancer
• hCG – Germ cell tumors
• LDH (Lactate Dehydrogenase) – Lymphoma, germ cell tumors
• Thyroglobulin / Calcitonin – Thyroid cancers
• Complete Blood Count (CBC) – May indicate leukemia, lymphoma
• Peripheral blood smear – Leukemia, lymphoma
• Urinalysis & Urine cytology – Bladder, kidney cancer

3. Imaging Tests

For the detection, diagnosis, and staging of cancer:

• X-ray (Chest X-ray) – Lung or bone cancer
• Ultrasound – Breast, abdomen, pelvic tumors
• CT scan (Computed Tomography) – Most solid organ cancers
• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) – Brain, spinal cord, breast, prostate
• PET scan (Positron Emission Tomography) – Detection of active cancer cells
• Bone Scan – Bone metastasis
• Mammography – Breast cancer

4. Biopsy Tests

Removal of tissue/cells for histopathology:

• Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC)
• Core needle biopsy
• Excisional/Incisional biopsy
• Endoscopic biopsy (via bronchoscopy, colonoscopy, etc.)
• Stereotactic biopsy (image-guided)
• Bone marrow biopsy – Leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma

5. Genetic and Molecular Tests

Used for targeted therapy and personalized medicine:

• BRCA1/BRCA2 gene testing – Breast & ovarian cancer
• EGFR, ALK, KRAS, BRAF mutations – Lung, colorectal, melanoma
• HER2/neu amplification – Breast, gastric cancer
• Next-generation sequencing (NGS)
• PD-L1 expression – Immunotherapy eligibility
• Microsatellite Instability (MSI) / Mismatch Repair (MMR) – Colorectal, endometrial cancers

6. Specialized Endoscopic & Visual Exams

• Colonoscopy / Sigmoidoscopy – Colon and rectal cancer
• Bronchoscopy – Lung cancer
• Cystoscopy – Bladder cancer
• Laryngoscopy – Laryngeal/throat cancer
• Nasopharyngoscopy – Nasopharyngeal cancer